METHODS TO QUANTIFY THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 RESTRICTIONS ON CHANGES IN AIR POLLUTION: A REVIEW OF STATISTICAL METHODS
Keywords:
COVID-19 pandemic, air pollutionDOI:
https://doi.org/10.17654/0973514325002Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic led to strict measures, such as lockdowns, to control the virus. After the first lockdown, improved air quality was noted due to reduced non-essential activities. However, uncertainty has surrounded the sustainability of this pollution reduction post-lockdown, influenced by increased private transport, reduced public transit, and smart-work adoption. Additionally, given the complexity of the phenomenon, there is no consensus on suitable statistical methods for analyzing the relationship between lockdowns and pollution reduction.
This review of statistical methods aims to provide a comprehensive overview of statistical models used to assess the relationship between COVID-19 restrictions and changes in air pollution, highlighting advantages and pitfalls.
MEDLINE, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Scopus databases were searched for observational studies reporting the association between lockdown and change in air pollution. Excluded articles were those unrelated to COVID-19 pollution impact, those on COVID-19 waste, and reviews lacking specific data or qualitative/quantitative information.
We presented a selection of 49 studies, comprising 16 with advanced statistical analyses and 33 with descriptive analyses and graphs trend. Air pollution data came from environmental agency databases and satellite instruments, examining single pollutants or composite indices.
Studies used various methods to analyze lockdown’s impact on air pollution. Most employed standard statistical methods like means comparison, while some used advanced econometric models such as difference-in-differences model.
Despite the observed general reduction in particulate matter, an increase in the air quality index, there has been a downward trend in primary pollution and a concurrent upward trend in secondary pollution.
Received: March 31, 2024
Accepted: June 27, 2024
References
M. F. Bashir, B. Ma, Bilal, B. Komal, M. A. Bashir, D. Tan, et al., Correlation between climate indicators and COVID-19 pandemic in New York, USA, Science of the Total Environment 728 (2020), 138835.
S. Pal, P. Das, I. Mandal, R. Sarda, S. Mahato, K. A. Nguyen, et al., Effects of lockdown due to COVID-19 outbreak on air quality and anthropogenic heat in an industrial belt of India, J. Clean Prod. 297 (2021), 126674.
European Environmental Agency, Air pollution sources [Internet]. [cited 2023 Oct 10]. Available from: https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/air/air-pollution-sources-1#:~:text=Key%20primary%20air%20pollutants%20include,including%20benzene%2C%20and%20certain%20metals.
M. Bakola, I. Hernandez Carballo, E. Jelastopulu and D. Stuckler, The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on air pollution in Europe and North America: a systematic review, Eur. J. Public Health 32(6) (2022), 962-8.
M. O. Faruk, M. S. Rahman, S. N. Jannat, Y. Arafat, K. Islam and S. Akhter, A review of the impact of environmental factors and pollutants on covid-19 transmission, Aerobiologia, Springer Science and Business Media B.V.; 38 2022, p. 277-86.
L. Saha, A. Kumar, S. Kumar, J. Korstad, S. Srivastava and K. Bauddh, The impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on global air quality: A review, Environmental Sustainability 5(1) (2022), 5-23.
M. D. Adams, Air pollution in Ontario, Canada during the COVID-19 State of Emergency, Science of the Total Environment 10 (2020), 742.
R. Bao and A. Zhang, Does lockdown reduce air pollution? Evidence from 44 cities in northern China, Science of the Total Environment 20 (2020), 731.
S. Mahato, S. Pal and K. G. Ghosh, Effect of lockdown amid COVID-19 pandemic on air quality of the megacity Delhi, India, Science of the Total Environment 15 (2020), 730.
J. D. Berman and K. Ebisu, Changes in U.S. air pollution during the COVID-19 pandemic, Science of the Total Environment 15 (2020), 739.
A. Biswal, T. Singh, V. Singh, K. Ravindra and S. Mor, COVID-19 lockdown and its impact on tropospheric NO2 concentrations over India using satellite-based data, Heliyon 6(9) (2020), e04764.
A. Chauhan and R. P. Singh, Decline in PM2.5 concentrations over major cities around the world associated with COVID-19, Environ Res. (2020), 187.
M. C. Collivignarelli, A. Abba, G. Bertanza, R. Pedrazzani, P. Ricciardi and Miino M. Carnevale, Lockdown for CoViD-2019 in Milan: What are the effects on air quality? Science of the Total Environment (2020), 732.
G. Dantas, B. Siciliano, B. B. Franca, C. M. da Silva and G. Arbilla, The impact of COVID-19 partial lockdown on the air quality of the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 729.
G. He, Y. Pan and T. Tanaka, The short-term impacts of COVID-19 lockdown on urban air pollution in China, Nat. Sustain. 3(12) (2020), 1005-11.
L. Li, Q. Li, L. Huang, Q. Wang, A. Zhu, J. Xu, et al., Air quality changes during the COVID-19 lockdown over the Yangtze River Delta Region: An insight into the impact of human activity pattern changes on air pollution variation, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 732.
L. Y. K. Nakada, Urban RC. COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts on the air quality during the partial lockdown in Sao Paulo state, Brazil, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 730.
C. Navinya, G. Patidar and H. C. Phuleria, Examining effects of the COVID-19 national lockdown on ambient air quality across urban India, Aerosol Air Qual Res. 20(8) (2020), 1759-71.
A. Otmani, A. Benchrif, M. Tahri, M. Bounakhla, E. M. Chakir, M. El Bouch, et al., Impact of Covid-19 lockdown on PM10, SO2 and NO2 concentrations in Sale City (Morocco), Science of the Total Environment (2020), 735.
D. Rodriguez-Urrego and L. Rodriguez-Urrego, Air quality during the COVID-19: PM2.5 analysis in the 50 most polluted capital cities in the world, Vol. 266, Environmental Pollution, Elsevier Ltd, 2020.
S. Sharma, M. Zhang, Gao J. Anshika, H. Zhang and S. H. Kota, Effect of restricted emissions during COVID-19 on air quality in India, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 728.
P. Sicard, A. De Marco, E. Agathokleous, Z. Feng, X. Xu, E. Paoletti, et al., Amplified ozone pollution in cities during the COVID-19 lockdown, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 735.
A. Tobias, C. Carnerero, C. Reche, J. Massague, M. Via, M. C. Minguillon, et al., Changes in air quality during the lockdown in Barcelona (Spain) one month into the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 726.
K. P. Vadrevu, A. Eaturu, S. Biswas, K. Lasko, S. Sahu, J. K. Garg, et al., Spatial and temporal variations of air pollution over 41 cities of India during the COVID-19 lockdown period, Sci. Rep. 10(1) (2020), 16574.
P. Wang, K. Chen, S. Zhu, P. Wang and H. Zhang, Severe air pollution events not avoided by reduced anthropogenic activities during COVID-19 outbreak, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. (2020), 158.
Y. Wang, Y. Yuan, Q. Wang, C. G. Liu, Q. Zhi and J. Cao, Changes in air quality related to the control of coronavirus in China: Implications for traffic and industrial emissions, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 731.
Y. Wang, Y. Wen, Y. Wang, S. Zhang, K. M. Zhang, H. Zheng, et al., Four-month changes in air quality during and after the COVID-19 lockdown in six megacities in China, Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 7(11) (2020), 802-8.
R. Zalakeviciute, R. Vasquez, D. Bayas, A. Buenano, D. Mejia, R. Zegarra, et al., Drastic improvements in air quality in ecuador during the COVID-19 outbreak, Aerosol Air Qual Res. 20(8) (2020), 1783-92.
R. Zhang, Y. Zhang, H. Lin, X. Feng, T. M. Fu and Y. Wang, NOx emission reduction and recovery during COVID-19 in East China, Atmosphere (Basel) 11(4) (2020), 433.
S. M. Ali, F. Malik, M. S. Anjum, G. F. Siddiqui, M. N. Anwar, S. S. Lam, et al., Exploring the linkage between PM2.5 levels and COVID-19 spread and its implications for socio-economic circles, Environ Res. 193 (2021), 110421.
S. Aydin, B. A. Nakiyingi, C. Esmen, S. Guneysu and M. Ejjada, Environmental impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) from Turkish perceptive, Environ Dev Sustain 23(5) (2021), 7573-80.
A. Benchrif, A. Wheida, M. Tahri, R. M. Shubbar and B. Biswas, Air quality during three covid-19 lockdown phases: AQI, PM2.5 and NO2 assessment in cities with more than 1 million inhabitants, Sustain Cities Soc. (2021), 74.
H. H. Chang, C. D. Meyerhoefer and F. A. Yang, COVID-19 prevention, air pollution and transportation patterns in the absence of a lockdown, J. Environ. Manage (2021), 298.
N. Das, S. Sutradhar, R. Ghosh and P. Mondal, Asymmetric nexus between air quality index and nationwide lockdown for COVID-19 pandemic in a part of Kolkata metropolitan, India, Urban Clim. (2021), 36.
C. Gama, H. Relvas, M. Lopes and A. Monteiro, The impact of COVID-19 on air quality levels in Portugal: A way to assess traffic contribution, Environ. Res. (2021), 193.
B. M. Hashim, S. K. Al-Naseri, A. Al-Maliki and N. Al-Ansari, Impact of COVID-19 lockdown on NO2, O3, PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations and assessing air quality changes in Baghdad, Iraq, Science of the Total Environment (2021), 754.
X. Huang, A. Ding, J. Gao, B. Zheng, D. Zhou, X. Qi, et al., Enhanced secondary pollution offset reduction of primary emissions during COVID-19 lockdown in China, Natl. Sci. Rev. 8(2) (2021), nwaa137.
I. Abou El-Magd and N. Zanaty, Impacts of short-term lockdown during COVID-19 on air quality in Egypt, The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science 24(3) (2021), 493-500.
M. T. Latif, D. Dominick, N. S. S. L. Hawari, A. A. A. Mohtar and M. Othman, The concentration of major air pollutants during the movement control order due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Klang Valley, Malaysia, Sustain Cities Soc. (2021), 66.
M. K. Mostafa, G. Gamal and A. Wafiq, The impact of COVID 19 on air pollution levels and other environmental indicators - A case study of Egypt, J. Environ Manage (2021), 277.
Y. Sathe, P. Gupta, M. Bawase, L. Lamsal, F. Patadia and S. Thipse, Surface and satellite observations of air pollution in India during COVID-19 lockdown: Implication to air quality, Sustain Cities Soc. (2021), 66.
N. Wang, J. Xu, C. Pei, R. Tang, D. Zhou, Y. Chen, et al., Air quality during COVID-19 lockdown in the yangtze river delta and the pearl river delta: Two Different Responsive Mechanisms to Emission Reductions in China, Environ. Sci. Technol. 55(9) (2021), 5721-30.
Q. Wang and S. Li, Nonlinear impact of COVID-19 on pollutions - Evidence from Wuhan, New York, Milan, Madrid, Bandra, London, Tokyo and Mexico City. Sustain Cities Soc. (2021), 65.
P. Broomandi, A. Tleuken, S. Zhaxylykov, A. Nikfal, J. R. Kim and F. Karaca, Assessment of potential benefits of traffic and urban mobility reductions during COVID-19 lockdowns: dose-response calculations for material corrosions on built cultural heritage, Available from: www.ogimet.com/gsynres.phtml.en.
X. Dong, X. Zheng, C. Wang, J. Zeng and L. Zhang, Air pollution rebound and different recovery modes during the period of easing COVID-19 restrictions, Science of the Total Environment (2022), 843.
S. Fatima, A. Ahlawat, S. K. Mishra, M. Maheshwari and V. K. Soni, Variations and source apportionment of PM2.5 and PM10 before and during COVID-19 lockdown phases in Delhi, India, Mapan - Journal of Metrology Society of India 37(4) (2022), 937-55.
T. Feng, H. Du, Z. Lin, X. Chen, Z. Chen and Q. Tu, Green recovery or pollution rebound? Evidence from air pollution of China in the post-COVID-19 era, J. Environ. Manage (2022), 324.
C. Liu, Z. Huang, J. Huang, C. Liang, L. Ding, X. Lian, et al., Comparison of PM2.5 and CO2 concentrations in large cities of China during the COVID-19 lockdown, Adv. Atmos. Sci. 39(6) (2022), 861-75.
T. Phuong, M. Nguyen, T. H. Bui, Manh, K. Nguyen, T. H. Nguyen, et al., Impact of Covid-19 partial lockdown on PM2.5, SO2, NO2, O3, and trace elements in PM2.5 in Hanoi, Vietnam. Available from: http://cem.
E. L. Odekanle, B. S. Fakinle, O. J. Odejobi, O. E. Akangbe, J. A. Sonibare, F. A. Akeredolu, et al., COVID-19 induced restriction in developing countries and its impacts on pollution load: case study of Lagos mega city, Heliyon 8(8) (2022), e10402.
P. Zuo, Z. Zong, B. Zheng, J. Bi, Q. Zhang, W. Li, et al., New Insights into Unexpected Severe PM2.5 Pollution during the SARS and COVID-19 Pandemic Periods in Beijing, Environ. Sci. Technol. 56(1) (2022), 155-64.
Q. Ma, J. Wang, M. Xiong and L. Zhu, Air quality index (AQI) did not improve during the COVID-19 lockdown in Shanghai, China, in 2022, Based on Ground and TROPOMI Observations, Remote Sens (Basel) 15(5) (2023), 1295.
P. Lal, A. Kumar, S. Kumar, S. Kumari, P. Saikia, A. Dayanandan, et al., The dark cloud with a silver lining: Assessing the impact of the SARS COVID-19 pandemic on the global environment, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 732.
A. Kerimray, N. Baimatova, O. P. Ibragimova, B. Bukenov, B. Kenessov, P. Plotitsyn, et al., Assessing air quality changes in large cities during COVID-19 lockdowns: The impacts of traffic-free urban conditions in Almaty, Kazakhstan, Science of the Total Environment (2020), 730:139179.
P. Kumar, S. Hama, H. Omidvarborna, A. Sharma, J. Sahani, K. V. Abhijith, et al., Temporary reduction in fine particulate matter due to anthropogenic emissions switch-off during COVID-19 lockdown in Indian cities, Sustain Cities Soc. (2020), 62:102382.
T. Le, Y. Wang, L. Liu, J. Yang, Y. L. Yung, G. Li, et al., Unexpected air pollution with marked emission reductions during the COVID-19 outbreak in China, Science 369(6504) (2020), 702-706.
NCAR national center for atmospheric research, Weather Research & Forecasting Model (WRF). https://www.mmm.ucar.edu/models/wrf.
H. Lin, X. Feng, T. M. Fu, H. Tian, Y. Ma, L. Zhang, et al., WRF-GC (v1.0): online coupling of WRF (v3.9.1.1) and GEOS-Chem (v12.2.1) for regional atmospheric chemistry modeling - Part 1: Description of the one-way model, Geosci Model Dev. 13(7) (2020), 3241-65.
X. Feng, H. Lin, T. M. Fu, M. P. Sulprizio, J. Zhuang, D. J. Jacob, et al., WRF-GC (v2.0): online two-way coupling of WRF (v3.9.1.1) and GEOS-Chem (v12.7.2) for modeling regional atmospheric chemistry-meteorology interactions, Geosci Model Dev. 14(6) (2021), 3741-68.
Paolo Zannetti, Lagrangian Dispersion Models, In: Springer, editor, Air Pollution Modeling, 1st ed., New York: Springer New York, NY; 1990, p. 185-222.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 PUSHPA PUBLISHING HOUSE, PRAYAGRAJ, INDIA
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
_________________________
Attribution: Credit Pushpa Publishing House as the original publisher, including title and author(s) if applicable.
Non-Commercial Use: For non-commercial purposes only. No commercial activities without explicit permission.
No Derivatives: Modifying or creating derivative works not allowed without written permission.
Contact Puspha Publishing House for more info or permissions.
Journal Impact Factor: 
Publication count: 330
Google h-index: 10
Downloads: 87500+
